The AO1 and 2 language change overview

So when it's comes to anylsing those texts, what do you know you will be looking out for:

AO1

High and low frequency lexis. There is more likely to be more low as that is lexis that is not used a lot in the present and old texts will use more of it that H.F.L. E.g the word "grandiose"

Why? Due to to different Form, Purpose and Audiences of the text. Audience for olders texts are more likely to be aimed at the higher classes, who are educated and literate. So the register will be expected tot be more formal.

Field specific lexis/jargon will also be important for looking at old texts as it will help to relate to the context.

Semantic fields = meaning of words and that will lead onto the idea of semantic shifts = how the meaning of words have changed over time e.g "gay" - happy, homosexual reference and now an insult and how it has become "banta" (uni lad). Also, the universal use of "he" in gender.

Grammar: punctuation and syntax structure - more complex. Why? Audience again.

Power - F.P.A - instrumental and influence of religion 

AO2  

Theory = David Crystal

Influence of external factors - descriptive and prescriptive

Standard and non-standard English 

Political correctness in language 

Standardisation snd dictionaries- Johnson

The printing press and Caxton - mass audience 

Research into Language Change

In today's lesson, we did some research into language change and how it is changing:

http://www.ted.com/talks/anne_curzan_what_makes_a_word_real

This clip is from TedTalks and is a talk by Anne Curzan. The blurb for this talk is:

One could argue that slang words like ‘hangry,’ ‘defriend’ and ‘adorkable’ fill crucial meaning gaps in the English language, even if they don't appear in the dictionary. After all, who actually decides which words make it into those pages? Language historian Anne Curzan gives a charming look at the humans behind dictionaries, and the choices they make. 

This talk is interesting as she begins to discuss how slang over the has changed over time and how many new words there are every year. She gives us an idea how dictionary editors jobs are harder than it looks and how deciding whether a word should be in the dictionary. It also interesting to see how the Usage Panel in dictionary's show how that words change in usage is acceptable. But the main message is that language change should not be seen as worrying but as fasinating and intreseting to compare to how it was used in the past to how it is used now.

Another intresting article is this one published this year in March:

http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/11/pronunciation-errors-english-language

This article looks at 8 pronoucation errors that have changed the English language today. Looking through the 8 ways, it's intresting to see which ones you do and how it has effected your language. There coud also be a question that is it actually a good thing or a bad things that this is happening in the English Language today. Other TedTalk: http://www.ted.com/talks/john_mcwhorter_txtng_is_killing_language_jk by John McWhorter places his veiw on how texting is killing the English Language. It brings back an idea that our speech in converging to writing. However, David Crystal argues the fact that actually texting could be good for the English language: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h79V_qUp91M and this clipd shows us his reasoning for this. How taxting is a language that had been developed from the uprising use of technology

Language Change

The second part of the exam this year is about language change post 1600. Here are the starter notes for this part of the course:

The 2 schools of thought in language change:

1. Descriptive Approach in language = context and the more modern one of today

2. Prescriptive Approach in language 

Key influences of language change

1. War, invasion and immigration - In past terms, the Brirish Empire was the main reason for new ways for language to mix. People from Jamaica, Australia, India and Canada all came to Britain and also with the introduction the the BBC The World, English was broadcast everywhere. A example for now, is the polish and simlaian coming into the south west looking for jobs, religous influences and the fact the are war or economic refuges.

An important theorist who is important to language change is David Crystal. This link: http://www.channel4.com/programmes/sunday-brunch takes you to an episode of Sunday Brunch on channel 4 he was on with his son, Ben talking about his new book and also how today is English language day! His main point how all of us in contempary Britainhave mongrel accents.

"There are more accents per mile than any other English speaking part of the world"

This is linking back to how invasion is a key feature of language change. His son Ben Cyrstal agrees by saying:

"Accents change from street to street."

The new book out called "You say potatoe" is all about about language has changed and this link here: http://www.panmacmillan.com/book/bencrystal/yousaypotato

Takes you to an investigation he is doing into this and collecting data from all over Britain over people's accents and you can get involved too.

They also talk about the idea that Shakespears language in the 1600's, would have had one of the original a accents of Cornish and now in the future, there is the idea that we won't have one accent and the media will help.

2. Science and technology - spoken and wort ten language is converging. We are in a generation now that will write more than we speak and the introduction of predicted texting is becoming a big infulence too.

This link here is to the new Barclays advert: https://www.facebook.com/video.php?v=825793004122235&video_source=pages_finch_thumbnail_video

Which is about teaching young people how to speak without using hedges or fillers. However, it maybe be stereotypical about language status and authority these days but it does have a point.

The details of some theories

Now onto theories! Let's begin some of the older ones:

B.F.Skinner

Behavioural psychologist, who wrote a book in 1957 called "Verbal Behaviour", which included his theory of language acquisition. Even though it could be argued that is was written a long time so context has change, the main points are still relevant. The ides that the consequence of language will occur when the correct context is performed.

Operant Condtioning Theory

This is the idea that imitation and reinforcement will stimulate behaviours and it can be applied to children's language too. This can be linked to the use of role play and how children learn from their parents: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSyGRut7T0s. This clip is of a little girl in the telegraphic stage and how she Inis imagining she is telling her mother off but she must have got the content from listening  and coping her parents.

When caregivers reinforce language through praise, interest and attention, language is stimulated and we must remember when getting a text in an exam, that looking and referring to the context is important. There are three points to remember:

1. Developmental milestones - how everyone learns at different rates

2. Logical Mistakes

3. Exceptions - this linked back to Eric Lennenburg and C.A.P (critical acquisition period) and what's happens when language is stimulated like in the case of Geni.

Also remember Hallidays functions, which I have posted already in my blog but compare at how they can be linked to children acquiring language.

1. Instrumental e.g crying 

2. Regulatory e.g through parents

3. Interactions e.g maintains friendly relationships 

4. Personal e.g expression and indentfying 

5. Heuristic e.g information seeking

6. Imaginative e.g role play, stories etc

7. Representational e.g using delacritve syntax and later going into post-telegraphic stage

8. Performative e.g controlling reactivity 

Anther interesting study is done by Penrose where they looked at gender sterotyping in children books - Peter and Jane

The details of the C.L.A stages

This is the AO2 part of the exam and is worth 16 marks, which looks at stages and theory. This post will be about the stages.

Stage 1: Holographic stage (one word responses) 

Age: 12 - 18 months so most words are based from what they have heard family say.

What happens: the child utters their 1st words. They then build up a vocabulary of one word response       that they need.

Why: They convey meaning of a sentence throughy body language, innotation and volume.

Advice for exam response: it is unlikely a transcript will include a child of this age but always look out for the punctuation of one word answers, which will more likely to be response and can help convey meaning.

Types of words: nouns and verbs that relate to context, content clusters may make some words hard to say like "th" and often unrecognisable adult words but caregive will know what they say.

Stage 2 - Two Words

Age: around 18 months.

What happens: supports Chomskys L.A.D and the "emergence of grammar" to get across context like "all gone".

Types of utterances: more flexible vocabulary choices with a range of grammatical structure. Action, perform and response.

Advice: again this stage not likely to appear in text.

Stage 3 - Telegraphic and Post-telegraphic

Age: 2 - 21/2 years.

What happens: the child begins to use sentances of up to 4 words in length.

Types of utterances: "sentances are fluid but not fixed" meaning they will have gaps where non-lexical words should be. For example: connectives like "and", "but" and "if", articles like "the" and "a", auxiliary verbs  like "is" and "has" as well as the "ing" maybe emitted. Also, sentances can move from simple to compound and the use of the different types are also used like delclaritve for declaring, interrogive for keeping adjaceny pairs going and imperatives that lack positve and negative face.

Key frameworks: 

Grammar - the stricture of the languge e.g word order, sentance types, word endings, tenses, using negatives, passive and conjunctions.

Semantics - the meaning of words e.g the usage, growth and comprehension of vocabulary, which can be linked to lexis.

Phonology - the sounds of language e.g intenation, stress, tone and pronouction

Key sentance structure for the exam: 

It could be....

- said

- suggested

- highlighted

- argued

- seen

The hardest thing you will ever do...

So this documentary really goes into the detail how how children go through the different stages  of learning language so by the end they can begin to speak long monologues like stories or jokes and even though they may flout Grice's Maxims, they still have done something remarkable in a very short space of time. Learning to use language.

This documentary describes human speech as the "wonder of the universe". How right from the start, babies may not be able to speak back to their mother but they know what their mothers voice sounds like and can respond in a series of different sounds that mother know what they need. Mothers also at to their babies as if they can understand, using face to face conversation and always using eye contact. Convergence is very important to use and it helps babies seem to understand what language is used for even if they can't use it straight away. A child's sense of sight could be considered more important to be used in helping language acquisition.

So at 18 months, 50 words are staring to be learned and all are context dependent e.g saying "thank you" for a biscuit. When the child receives the biscuit, they will eat it and know it tastes nice so know saying thank you will receive something nice. It is clever to see how quickly then can put two things together to help improve their knowledge on how to use language. Also, how caregivers tone in speaking is important - how they exaggerate language and how children begin to pick up how the same words but changing it from interrogative to a declarative intonation is important for changing tone. It was also interesting to see how caregivers respond to different genders learning to speak. When a girl got a right word, their was more positive reinforcement than when a boy got it right showing boys are expected to get it right compared to girls. But in 2014 would you say that is starting to change now? Verbs used with onomatopoeia is important in inspiring role plays, stories and imitation of words.

When it comes to 2 1/2 year, adjacency pairs and turn taking is starting to be involved in conversation but not in long sentences so the child is getting used to conversation. However, they still don't know how to really initiate conversation so responsive replies are set by caregiver. Nursery rhymes are a good example how using more complex syntax and slowly teaching children that it is ok to use. At the age if 3, possessive pronouns as beginning to be learned due to context and awareness like "you", "my","his" and "her". By 4, it becomes easier to tell a story via the past tense but there will still be errors. They know not make a noun a simple past but add "ed" onto irregular verbs. The discovery do "and" as a word is important in joining sentences together to make compound syntax with simple connectives to join them together. This helps children to realize they can make longer storied, which can hold the floor more and have more attention. At 5 years old, they become more aware of external influences that effect language that is outside the house, nursery ect, to use the active or passive voice and start to make complex sentences. They still have a long way to go like learning not to side sequence however the basics is over and non-verbal communication also becomes and important way in helping to communicate.

An interesting topic to look at is how autistic children who have aspergers or autism learn langue different to a child who doesn't. How they fit onto the spectrum of learning a language and how the struggle with eye context and conversation. Language is a things that we all learn differently but mostly in the same way.

Ok, so by the time we each adulthood, we have learnt about 100,000 words. As linguists, we mustn't over analyse the ways of learning language, just remember context is important in helping to achieve this. 

Analysis of a transcript linking back to CLA

So here is the beginning of a whole lot of analysis to do with this topic. The transcript we look at today was actually from 2013 question paper, with the question:

Referring in detail to the transcript and to relevant idea from language study, analyse the language used by children and their caregivers.

This question will always be question one of the exam. Here is the analysed transcript that we went through in class:

Context: Lou is the adult and is an auntie to Ruby. She is looking after her while her Mum is busy. They have just come in from an outing and are in the kitchen. The other names are for the cats.

Lou: shall we take your jacket off

“shall” is a modal auxiliary verb and is used as a politeness strategy to get Ruby to get her coat off, which links back to the context of just coming in from an outing and using an interrogative sentence to start the conversation. The pronoun “we” suggest Lou is looking for collaboration in this task.

Ruby: it's not a jacket it's a coat

The declarative statement back from Ruby shows she is trying to correct what Lou is saying

Lou: oh (.) sorry (.) shall we take your COAT off then

Emphasised noun shows Lou reinforcing her language to show she understands Ruby

Ruby: mmm

Non-verbal response 

Lou: are you going to be a bossy boots all morning

The adjective “bossy” is added to a pre-modified noun. This can be linked back to gender as it is normally applied to women due to it being not expected for women to be bossy as men are normally known as the boss. It is also alliteration.

Ruby: [nods & laughs] (3.0) what's up wiv Felma

Contraction is used showing for a young age of about 3 – 4 she understands what they are used for. “Wiv” and “Felma” shows she could be in the post telegraphic stage and still making colloquial errors as she struggle with the “th” sounds. She also flouted one of Grices Maxims as she quickly moves on to the next subject.

Lou: Thelma [questioning intonation] (1.0) oh (.) she's been a silly girl (1.0) she's been fighting

Pronounces “th” in “Thelma” as a way of reinforcing the correct way of saying it. “silly girl” is another pre-modified noun.”

Ruby: what did it (.) what what was it (.) em Simba bitted by a dog

She uses the hedge “em” as an connective and she uses a lot of simple syntax to talk. “bitted” shows she added “ed” to an irregular verb. This can be linked back to what Chomsky’s L.A.D says about being language being nature and the results of The Wug Test by Jean Berko-Gleeson.

Lou: Simba got bitten by a do::g [questioning intonation] oh no is he all right

Lou repeats the sentence back correctly and changes her tone of voice when saying dog to show she is worried. In this transcript, a lot of interrogative syntax is used to keep the direct conversation going and to avoid using imperatives, which can also be linked back to gender and what Robin Lakoff said about it being a trait of female language and being co-operative in converstaions.

Ruby: yeh

Lou: yes

Replying with “yes” so show more polite.

Ruby: he's better now

Lou: is he better now (.) the vet looked after him [questioning intonation] (2.0)

Ruby: no we took him to the bets two times but he's better

She struggles to pronounce the “v” sound”

Lou: he's better [questioning intonation] oh that's good (.)

Thelma's getting better

Ruby: Sim (.) Simba

slept on my (2.0) Fergal and Simba slept on my bed

There is a bit of overlapping with conversation and she flouts the maxims again to change the converstion.

Lou: oh (.) last night [questioning intonation]

Ruby: yeh

Lou: is there room on your bed for two pussy cats and you

Connotations of childish descriptions on animals. For the next few sentences, it shows that Ruby understands the concept of adjacency pairs and how conversation structure works. Also, the use of pola questioning that require simple answers.

Ruby: yes

Lou: is there (.) do they not get (.) do you not get pushed out of bed every night by two big pussy cats

Ruby: no

Lou: they're almost as big as you your cats (1.0) shall we have some jam on toast

Ruby: yes

Lou: would you like some apple juice as well

Ruby: yes

Lou: what would you like first

Ruby: apple juice

Lou: apple juice (.) a little glass [questioning intonation]

Ruby: yes

Lou: yes (1.0)

Ruby: big girls have glass don't they

Lou: yes (.) big girls have glasses (.) it's all I've got (.) glasses (2.0)

Ruby: grandma has glass and cups

Lou: grandma has glass and cups does she (.) and what do you have at grandma's (1.0)

Shows that she is not at her Grandmas house

Ruby: apple juice and orange

Lou: apple juice and orange (.) there we go (.) where are you going to sit to have this (.) do you want to sit at the table

Shows how repetition is important in conversation to help stimulate Ruby’s language.

Ruby: I'll sit (.) I want to sit in the room

Lou: oo:: no (.) not with your apple juice

Elongation of the “oh no” shows Lou is taking to Ruby at her level, showing she is trying to stimulate Ruby's language.

Ruby: only wiz my toast (2.0)

Lou: sit here and I'll move my things out of the way

Ruby: only in (.) only wiz my toast

Lou: okay (.) there you go (1.0) can you manage

Ruby: Mummy got Mummy's moved a bed

Lou: Mummy's moved her bed or your bed [questioning intonation] (2.0)

Ruby: her bed (.)

Lou: right (.) where's she moved it to

Ruby: (3.0) that (.) bit [pointing left]

Lou: that bit [laughs]

Ruby: then the baby's mattress is (.) on that bit [pointing right]

Here is a link to the context about why is Ruby is being looked after because her mum is having a baby.

Lou: a::h I see:: (1.0) so Mummy's moved her bed so she can fit the bed in for the baby (.) you excited about the baby [questioning intonation]

Ruby: (2.0) it's coming after Christmas

Lou: after Christmas (.) is Father Christmas going to bring it

Ruby: no (.) Mummy's made it

Lou: [laughs] Mummy's made it has she (.) she's clever your Mummy isn't she

Ruby: we don't know how she made it cos the books shows us (.) how's it (.) she made it

Lou: oh right (.) has she read the book with you (1.0) or are you getting a book

Ruby: (2.0) we haven't got a book about the baby we getting a book

Pauses show that Ruby is thinking before what she is about to say to make sure she gets it right.

Lou: are you looking forward to the baby (.) do you want a baby brother or a baby sister

Ruby: (3.0) I want a girl

Gender stereotype of a girl wanting a baby sister rather than a brother.

Lou: a girl (2.0)

Ruby: I want to call it Dora

Lou: [laughs] Dora (.) after Dora the Explorer

This shows Lou is up to date in children’s TV and knows what Ruby is talking about.

Ruby: and when she gets bigger (.) she (.) she can explorer [laughs]

Ruby misses out the indefinite article that shows she still as some thing's to learn about correct way to form sentences and Lou replies back in the correct form so that Ruby can learn from her.

Lou: [laughs] when she gets bigger she can be an explorer

Ruby: no (.) Mum said when we at Sun (.) Sunday dinner (.) she'll be adorable [laughs]

Lou: adorable (.) that's clever isn't it

Total marks for this question is 48 marks and its split up into 3 categories:

AO1 - 24 marks - half the marks are for language analysis and that looking at things like tenses, pre-modification, adjacency pairs, definite and indefinite article, interrogatives/passive syntax, auxiliary verbs ect

AO2 - 16 marks - this look at stages and theories like Chomsky, Skinner, Debroy, Jean Berko-Gleeson, critical acquisition period ect.

AO3 - 8 marks - finally these marks are for context. How the text links back to gender, power technology or adapting language.

Links to real transcript and mark scheme for it: 

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/AQA-ENGB3-DB-JAN13-CR.PDF

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/AQA-ENGB3-W-MS-JAN13.PDF